Experience of working within a social work organization Essay

Introduction Organization is a social unit of people that is structured and managed to meet a need or to pursue collective goals .All organizations have a management structure that determines relationships between the different activities and the members, and subdivides and assigned roles, responsibility and authority to carry out different task (Sorenson, 1999, p. 76). Initially I will give a brief back ground about organisation of my placement, the Primary task, Authority and issues of diversity and inter-professional working. Interpersonal skills of a mental health professional are essential for an effective multidisciplinary team member, interpersonal skills, characteristics and attitudes are key to team working. Individuals on a team should be encouraged, through reflective practice and appropriate support, to examine their own characteristics and how they might adapt to a team environment. It is also important to recognize that while mental health professionals may have well-developed skills within their own area of expertise, it should not be assumed that they have all of the skills needed to collaborate effectively with others as part of a team. There is the primary task (also referred to as functional task or work task), this corresponds with the mission of an organization. Most organizations face multiple tasks all vying to be expressed in the service of the primary task. This is the point where authority, becomes central, i.e. the person who decides what task has priority. It is the authority boundary in conjunction with the task boundary that helps the task become clear and for the work of the group to be taken on successfully. (Hayden and Molenkamp, 2002, p. 7). Absent clarity at the authority boundary, destructive chaos is likely to result and the survival of the group is in peril. While in some instances such a collapse is desirable for the new to arise and for the task to be met. Yet from the perspective of the group that dies, the loss continues to live well after the time boundary passes. The primary task of my group in the organization, include case management, analysis of social welfare policies, and Care management’ was considered to be fundamental element of the community care reforms in the 1990 Act. In 2003 one in ten of local authority social workers were employed as care managers but it is difficult to know what this meant in terms of their roles and function. In theory the core tasks included: case finding and referral; assessment and selection; care planning and service packaging; monitoring and re-assessment; and case closure. (Knapp et al, 2005: 40). Functions that team the play for society was our objectives as a team was to create a society in the next two decades in which no child lives in poverty and where all children have opportunities to realize their potential. Improving opportunities for disadvantaged children is at the heart of our strategy.   (HM Treasury 1999, p. 39). As with older people, the consistent message that disabled people have given about the services they receive is that they do not adequately meet their needs. Research by Jenny Morris in the early 1990s found that statutory services were inflexible; were only available for the most basic personal care tasks; tended to `fit the client to the service’ rather than the service to the client; were provided in a way that reduced independence; and were only available to people in their own home so they could not be helped to go out, either to social activities or to work. Authority boundaries and facilitating structures, the role of authority boundaries and structures is to provide a space or object for the anxiety and worry work to be displaced among social workers, so that the group can attend to the task realistically and appropriately. The term leader acts out as the organization’s ambivalence and splitting. Interpreting this situation through Hirschhorn’s model suggests problematic consequences. The issue groups volunteers to take up the organizational tasks and attendant risks offered and accepted authority and, using Colin’s facilitating structures, did important work; they thus entered the virtuous cycle. This process, however, reduced the authority and increased the anxiety in the top team; they were likely to be heading for a vicious cycle of anxiety, leading to social defences, and therefore dysfunctional process and inhibiting structure. Thus, there were two competing processes: one facilitating change and the other undermining it. All organizations have socially constructed defences against the anxiety which is aroused through carrying out the primary task of the organization ( Isabel Menzies 1970 p.496) These social defences may be evident in the organization structure, in its procedures, information systems, roles, in its culture, and in the gap between what the organizations says it is doing and what it is actually doing. Social defences are â€Å"created† unconsciously by members of the organization through their interactions in carrying out the primary task. Social defaces helps the top team rarely to operate in the â€Å"work group† mode; basic assumption behavior is more prevalent. The term leader, in his leadership, yet an analysis of the top team’s dynamics suggests a high degree of basic assumption dependence. Additionally, lack human diversity within any given organization if the workplace is within, to coin (Hirschhorn’s, 1988 pp.39) term, then the learning organization must account for the variety of images that obtrude from the personal histories of each member. The work of (Kets de Vries and Miller 1985, pp.239) illustrates clearly the consequences of the neurotic qualities of managers permeating the working relations within an organization. Additionally, an element of diversity is a person’s age and life stage (pp.246) .On a different front writers such as (Gilligan 1982 pp.23) and (Schachtel , 1989 pp.214)   have argued in their own ways that gender influences strongly the way in which men and women engage with their world. The learning disabilities which Senge sees connected to structural manifestations of hierarchy and segmentation may be understood more deeply as evidence of patriarchal, phallocentric modes of engagement. Yet a reading of Senge shows no consideration of neurosis, age or gender, let alone libido, in the dynamics of the learning process. Furthermore, he does not consider how any one of these affects a person’s readiness to learn, which differs substantially between people at different times. He asserts that the learning organization is one which will end the war between home and work when managers realize that effective parenting is the model for leadership. Knowlden (1998) suggested that experience impact on a social worker ability to be caring; as a student social worker I was often overwhelmed by the working environment. This could imply that it is not the amount of experience which is important, but the length of time it takes for a social work to acclimatize. Support mechanisms such as preceptorship and clinical supervision may, therefore, have a role in facilitating compassionate care. (Pearcey’s 2007 p.29) study offers some support for Wright’s views. As a social work I observed that qualified social workers mainly cared for patients’ medical needs, with the core element delegated to junior practitioners. Many years ago a ‘task-centred’ approach to organizing care was proposed as a possible defence mechanism against the anxiety that a more interpersonal style of working creates (Menzies, 1970 p.258). This may offer some insight into the behaviour of social workers who seek refuge in form filling and other activities not directly related to care. Social worker students from different health disciplines often have little idea of what each other’s roles entail. Inter-professional learning increase this knowledge, as well as giving students an understanding of the interpersonal skills needed for liaison and communication. Every professional has its own roles, skills and responsibilities making for efficient practices in curing, managing or treating particular ailments, but has this always created cohesive team working in day-to-day working life. In my social worker practice fitting in the organization hierarchy was a problem, and I was not able to question, share knowledge and learn together without professional and defensive boundaries. Often, an institutional hierarchy may obstruct the flow of communication and prevent a person from contributing and feeling valued, which ultimately can negatively affect patient care (Reynolds, 2005 p.19). More longitudinal studies are needed that follow through and beyond my undergraduate studies, along with critical observation of the learning process. Standardizing in the curricula of all health professionals can improve key skills and prepare students for their careers by driving up standards of professionalism and best practice. Sometimes, in the hierarchy of the hospital, it is hard to know what one place is as a student social worker student. When one is it the bottom of the totem pole.   No one in this hospital is lower than me. I think most of us have probably gotten that vibe at some point, even if it hasn’t been explicitly articulated.   There’s the simple fact that, in some ways, we are occasionally more of a burden to the hospital than a benefit.   It’s a constant between trying to be useful, trying to learn something and really make the most of rotation, and simply not getting in the way. For example â€Å"one of social worker will help you,† the term leader said.   Maybe he was joking?   I couldn’t tell his intonation could have gone either way. Then, the leader handed me a folder.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Here, fan her with this,† she said.   Again joking?   Not sure.   Ã‚  And naturally, being a social worker student, my mind immediately leapt to the assumption that they would think I wasn’t a team player if I didn’t agree to fan her. So really, what else could I do?   When the staff physician walked in, I tried to be nonchalant about the fact that I was standing by the patient’s head and fanning her with a purple confidentiality. Being at the bottom of the hierarchy within a multidisciplinary asking question is also a careful balance. A friend a year ahead of me gave me some pretty phenomenal advice:   If it’s a question related to patient care or unique to a particular situation, or about management of your patient’s condition ask away.   Of course, there’s a time and a place for everything. From the view of the individual I have sketched, the important questions about groups are those devoted to the conditions that take away the factors in social environment that ordinarily keep his self-system in its normal integration. (Bion, 1961: 145-6) Bion stated that the basic assumptions are states of mind the individuals in the group get into. The awareness of the group remains in its regressed form because the group is there and so restrains further disintegration which would be tantamount to psychotic states, an eventuality that the early structuring of the self also resists desperately. The problems of group dynamics thus become those of how the normal affirmations of the self system are removed. The situations of groups in this respect are of almost infinite variety. Thus when Bion said that certain illnesses might originate as diseases of the group, he thought specific illnesses might prove to be linked to specific states of the group. Here the most prominent stem from the task. Although there may have been some nominal description such as â€Å"to study group processes,† none of the members has any clear notion of what that task involves this affected my group as I was working with. There is therefore immediately a considerable loss for the self of its ego anchorage in reality. Important also is the realization that the task, in whatever form it emerges, will involve members in some exposure of their private and even hidden self. This factor I believe to be important in the group dynamics group, although much more so in the therapeutic one. Since the origin of the secret self was its unacceptability, there is a great deal of anxious suspicion among members is that which he expresses some of his feelings about the situation. In conclusion, from my experience, I have learnt that it is important for both the student and the organization placement staff to be aware of who is going where before the placement starts. A good social worker student will contact the organization team in advance of the placement in order to check what time to turn up, and whether there is any uniform policy or other protocols they should be aware of. Likewise a good ward team and mentor will encourage the student to come on a preliminary visit just to be given the above information and to say hello. It can help enormously to reduce anxiety on a first day if the student already knows one or two faces. On a pre-placement visit the student can be introduced to their mentor and have a quick chat and any placement reading can be handed out together with the placement information pack, outlining learning opportunities and ward information, shift pattern, dress code etc. Off duty rotas can be planned together and a pre-placement visit can also be the forum for any negotiation over study days and child care needs etc., so that the anxiety over these can be managed prior to the placement. A good welcoming pre-placement visit can begin the process of socialization into the team and its culture and can give the student an early sense of belonging.    References Bion, W.R., (1961) Experiences in groups and other papers. London: Tavistock Publications [Reprinted London: Routledge, 1989; London: Brunner-Routledge, 2001.] Corbin, J. (2008) Is caring a lost art in nursing? International Journal of Nursing Studies; 45, 163-165. Gilligan, C. (1982), In a Different Voice, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, . Hayden, C. & Molenkamp, R. J. (2002). â€Å"Tavistock primer II.† Jupiter, FL: The A. K. Rice Institute for the Study of Social Systems. Hirschhorn, L. (1988), The Workplace Within: Psychodynamics of Organizational Life, MIT   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Press, Cambridge, MA, . HM Treasury (1999) Opportunity for All London. The Stationary Kets de Vries, M., Miller, D. (1985), The Neurotic Organization, Jossey Bass, London, . Knowlden, V. (1998) The Communication of Caring in Nursing. Indianapolis: Center Nursing Press. Menzies, I.E.P. (1970) The Functioning of Social Systems as a Defence Against Anxiety: Report on a Study of the Nursing Service of aGeneral Hospital. London: Tavistock Institute of Marital Studies. Pearcey, P. (2007) Tasks and routines in 21st century nursing: student nurses’ perceptions. British Journal of Nursing; 16: 5, 296-300. Reynolds F (2005) Communication and Clinical Effectiveness in Rehabilitation. Edinburgh: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann Schachtel, Z. (1989), â€Å"Men, women, and work†, in Changing Group Relations. The Proceedings of the Ninth Scientific Meeting of the A.K. Rice Institute (Eds),New York, NY, . Senge, P.M., Roberts, C., Ross, R.B., Smith, B.J., Kleiner, A. (1994), The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook: Strategies and Tools for Building a Learning Organization, Nicholas Brealey Publishing, London, . Senge, P.M. (1990), â€Å"The leader’s new work: building learning organizations†, Sloan Management Review, Fall Reprint 3211, Sorenson, G. (1999). Taking the robes off: when leaders step down. In B. Kellerman and L. Matusak(Eds.), Cutting Edge: Leadership 2000. College Park, MD: Academy of Leadership Press, 1999. Tweddell, L. (2007) Compassion on the curriculum. Nursing Times; 103: 38, 18-19.   

Piracy

Piracy and Copyright Infringement are major issues that have developed through the use of the Internet and file transfer servers. Developments and advances in these areas over past two decades have my generation within a mouse click of their destination. However, these opened doors have been overrun with a large exchange of pirated material. The present issue involves the nations excessive illegal downloading of unlicensed products.The trend of previous litigations involving piracy and copyright cases in federal courts has ruled against the consumer, and has involved the rewriting of many laws, yet it becomes harder to pinpoint copyright violators as decryption advancement mimics closely the timeline of security encryption. I feel that it is imperative for all software products to receive a restrictive license tag, enabling software companies and music artists to maintain a living and economic interests. I disagree with the form/process in which these files are distributed, allowing for piracy of files, rerecording and redistribution.The use of patents began in the early 19th century, and would ultimately lead to the current system of licensing and copyright of products that can be reproduced. These initial patents were intended to allow artists to make a living and survive off their pieces of artwork. The year 1880 marked an important year for the patent in the case Diamond versus Chark Barty who were disputing the patent of a single-cell bacterium used in breaking down crude oil. The Supreme Court ruled that patents could be granted for this purpose.The main purpose of a patent is to promote and encourage investors in society to make new ways to assist society and economy and provide the inventor with royalties. Patenting is a system that involves product branding or other signs of ownership to provide the public with reliability in new forms of intellectual property, while still protecting the owner/ inventor. Copyrights give authors complete ownership and r ights to their creations during extended period of time, and in most cases fall the under the rights of a solo beneficiary. Today the act of sharing files promotes global exchange between users.This global networking between countries provides business solutions that not only reduces prices on sales and purchases, but also allows large companies to make more accurate marketing decisions with documented transactions. For the home user programs like Kazaa and Limewire, implement these large ‘peer to peer’ networks that are hosted on FTP servers, and share files. In developing cases where music files and software are being illegally copied, there are always disagreements on what exactly is protected and what is an original work.For example, the website Priceline. com has attempted to make patents on their ideas that would seem to be common belief and not unique, such as trying to patent an auction site with auctions that have reserve prices. Therefore, one of the more prec edent matters is the issue regarding what exactly is ‘intellectual property’, and how does music fall under that stance of copyright. Intellectual property can be defined as any creation of human intelligence that is new, unique, and has market value. Copyright places limits on use of speech, print, and performance.This idea of intellectual property is not common knowledge to most people who compile large networks. It is evident that not all people realize the implications of stealing files and copying music. Many defend piracy as a form of promotion of software, which would have otherwise been ignored by certain consumers that never buy certain software in the first place. Most software copies are shared because their users don’t think of lending software or lending music as a crime, or at least not one taken seriously. Of course the elimination of digital songs/sources would not hold up.On a business level online trade, exchange, and purchase lowers transaction costs significantly, and for the music business actually makes up a big part of their remaining buyers. One of the main differences between piracy of music and software is the fact that newly available technology today is more advanced and friendly to forms of copying, which allow top quality music between each copy and user. In the past, qualities of copied cassettes were not as good or of equal quality and didn’t involve the Internet, whereas online and digitized songs are more readily available and easier to simply copy, and then e-mail to a friend. Copying music from a CD to a cassette or to your computer is legal and accepted only because you own the original copy of the CD and the music files are not being used for commercial purposes†. The first attempt by a person who uploaded an album of songs online was not at first a major problem as it was easier to trace/locate the source since early networks were primitive and did not involve as many users. In 1999, a 19- year-old, Shawn Fanning, invented a program called Napster, which users could download and exchange musical recordings for free over the Internet.This program was considered a gateway to loss government control and launched multiple similar uncontrolled networks. There have been many steps taken in response to Internet piracy, however, it seems as though most have been lackluster and are not sufficient to produce visible and significant results. The music industry has turned to making formatting music files that can only be copied or reproduced in certain prescribed circumstances like . m4p. This defensive technology sometimes takes away from a user’s number of legitimate uses and transfers, however it seems to be on the road to improving safe transfers.Unfortunately, with each announcement of new protective software, a counter program almost instantly is created, matched, and supported through counter hacking technology that makes files available to these large copying netwo rks. Any person with knowledgeable code in computers is capable of decoding these files. This desire to ‘liberate’ files by many hackers is only a sign to show that the industry should be developing ways to work with the technology and not against it. The Recording Industry Association of America recently filed lawsuits against four college students, running ftp servers on campus networks.A federal judge in California settled the case quickly, and despite the fact that the students never actually accepted responsibility, they settled to pay $12,000 to $17,500 in fines. A case that ended without a clearly defined verdict proves that it is difficult to have a true scapegoat for responsibility of piracy violations and copyright infringement. â€Å"The internet is like one gigantic copying machine,† says David Nimmer, a lawyer who spends most of his time with disputes in Intellectual property. â€Å"Once on the internet, copying becomes effortless, costless, widespr ead, and immediate. Nimmer is an experienced lawyer who is well aware of the easy access to the copied files and has trouble himself challenging illegality in certain situations. Copyright law does not make a distinction between public use and private use, such as buying a book from a store like Borders, versus borrowing it from a library and copying. More recently the United States congress passed the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, which updated copyright laws to include these widespread international servers and allow the set up of a system to control the Internet. Unfortunately, only 22 countries are on oard for the ratification process and make it increasingly difficult for any visible change. Many countries consider these laws would impede on the freedom of the Internet in its original creation, if forced under a universal control involving the U. S. However, at this point copyright-based industries generate more revenues internationally than any other U. S. industry, more t han the aircraft, agriculture, and automobile industries. Without global support, a server can be created in any country to house large FTP sites, like Kazaa which is has a large base in Singapore.For an artist, the main purpose of a copyright is to protect. A majority of artists feel that the free song-sharing epidemic is affecting their careers and profits as artists. Many artists and songwriters who write original music and have only the music to directly profit from. Downloading off these sites affects them negatively; specifically songwriters, record labels, producers, managers, and any others involved in production of music, who cannot rely on performance profits. Artists can sell and profit off merchandise, whereas songwriters lack that ability.Generally the belief is that the pirating music solely affects the artists, when in reality it affects the industry as a whole, including all the people who have jobs connected to these artists. The process in which a record company ga ins complete control of a band has shortened the length of an artist’s career, again ultimately hurting economy. Music industry should try and not dishearten online music consumers that promote artists, but rather develop new ways to work with the evolving technology.Software companies make money through businesses, because instead of copying a CD, a business must register each computer or client separately so that each has its own separate license. It is suggested that despite counter acting efforts, 90% of all computer software is counterfeit similar to most music. There are many solutions to existing problems involving copyright infringement and illegal piracy of music. Despite these problems I do not support the copyright laws full intention and I feel that there is a need for reform of distribution.Interesting enough, it is assumed that the issue is clear and obvious to all people who steal music. While the music industry does see music sharing as piracy, the youth major ity does not see this topic on quite the same black and white level. The record company’s actual costs are low, and yet a CD’s cost to a consumer is not. The reasoning of the average teenager is that why would they want to spend $20 on a CD with one good song on it, $200 dollars on software that they must have for academic requirement, when they can upload it for free.Lack of communication in a time where everyone is connected seems like a waste and stunt to new advancing technology. Piracy is not right, and a corrective measure can only come from recognizing that the problem originates from not recognizing more than just the new ease of file transfer. Piracy is of course a wide addressing issue, including a rapidly increasing amount of people from a conglomeration of age groups. There needs to be a redistribution of wealth within in the music industry and software industries. Once issues like these are addressed, a solution can be found.

Karl Marx & Max Weber on Social Stratification

We cannot deny the existence of social structures or system by which people are categorized or ranked in a hierarchy. This people categorization is otherwise known as social stratification. It is a universal characteristic of society that persists over generations.   It is a social structure by which social issues and organizational problems arise.In a society, groups of people share a similar social status, and this is known as social class. Over the years, the importance and definition of membership in any social class evolve and change between societies. Societies have become all the more dynamic because of technological advances, industrialization, and now, globalization.Contemporary societies stratify into a hierarchical system based on economic status, income or wealth, and this is known as socioeconomic class.   In the past, societies have an upper class and a lower class. Those in the upper class are deemed to be the very wealthy and powerful, while those from the lower c lass are the poor and the weak.Considering social changes and developments in the twentieth century, new groups called the middle class and working class in urban societies emerged.   Members of the middle class are the educated, highly paid professionals like doctors, accountants, scientists, and lawyers. They nonetheless work for or render services for the upper class. Much like the working class, they receive their wages, only they earn above the minimum wage because of the market value of their professions and skills. Their market value increases as they increase their skills and competencies. They have the chance to increase their income and eventually move up the social ladder (Krieken, et al, 2001, p. 62).Meanwhile, those who belong to the working class are the trades people, factory laborers, drivers, and similar workers who has some skills training, which they use to earn a living. Although they may be considered financially stable due to regular income, they still belong to the lower class for the reason that they earn only slightly above the minimum wage.Other members of the lower class are the underemployed, unemployed, welfare beneficiaries, homeless, and everyone else who live below the poverty line. Due to lack of education and skills, their opportunities are simply limited (McGregor, 1997, p. 261).Social stratification is already an intrinsic structure of any society, and if it has its benefits and function in a society, which some scholars believe, that is reward and merit for productivity. People are rewarded for their productive efforts and skills. When we speak of reward, it does not only mean economic reward. Remember that people are also rewarded with (social) honor and this is known as social status.Karl Max and Max Weber were distinguished theorists whose works have become the basic but significant frameworks of sociology. Their concepts prove to be relevant until today. They have provided a rich reservoir of perspectives, which help contemporary social thinkers and learners, understand social stratification, classes and status groups. They both laid the groundwork for understanding social conflict and inequality in modern society such that whenever issues of social inequality arise, whether it is on the basis of social class, race, ethnicity, gender, and other dimensions, all these are explored and studied in the context of sociological traditions derived from their works.  Karl Marx’ Concept of Class Karl Marx defined class in terms of the extent to which a person or social group has the capacity to control the means of production. Those of the same social class have a common relationship to the means of production. Marx believed that the base of inequality among individuals in modern societies is economy (Sanghara).Marx believed that classes are constituted by the relationship of groupings of individuals to property ownership in the means of production. In this regard, a few own properties and capita l while others do not, many work while only a few live off the fruits of those workers. Class societies have been built around a line of demarcation between two antagonistic classes, one dominant and the other subordinate (Giddens, 1971, p. 37).Marx’ view of social stratification stemmed from his observations of early industrialization in Europe during the late part of the 19th century. He saw the existence of two major classes –the ruling class (capitalists) and the working class, or otherwise known as the bourgeois and proletariat. The capitalists were viewed as such because of their ownership of the means of production, as well as the power this creates – economically and even politically (Krieken, et al, 2001, p. 55).In a capitalist system, the ruling class, with their economic resources, lives from the productivity of the working class, and this is when social divisions and conflicts arise. Unlike in tribal, rural or simple societies where people live by hu nting (or gathering), people can not be categorized differently, because no one has more than others do.Marx believed that the conflict between the bourgeois (capitalists) who happen to control production, and the proletariat who actually produce the goods or render services in a society, on the basis of capitalism.In capitalism, control over production evokes control over the laborers, and this set-up is likely to result in exploitation of workers by the capitalists. With the craving of capitalists themselves to compete with fellow capitalists, and the greediness for more material gains, Marx predicted that in a society where the capitalist system prevails, financial resources of the few but wealthy capitalists would flourish. At the same time, the income disparity between the poor and the rich would continue. Meanwhile, as capitalists continue to exploit workers, the workers would remain victims of economic crises.The social classes that originated from the capitalist system that Marx knew during his time still holds true today, only, the bourgeois class has become fragmented over the last century due to the emergence of the so-called stockholders. Likewise, the proletariat has been changed significantly by the â€Å"white-collar revolution.† Decades ago, work involved mostly manual labor, or otherwise known as â€Å"blue-collar† occupations. â€Å"White-collar† occupations involve mostly mental or non-manual skills. However, the shared social structure of earning wages makes both proletariats during Marx’ time, and today’s educated but average office workers, a â€Å"working class.†Today, workers’ conditions have significantly improved through the efforts of labor organizations, and, because of expanded legal rights and protection of workers. While exploitation of workers still happen, and a small proportion of powerful people control the vast majority of wealth in our society, Marx’ perspectives will continue to prove valuable and significant in our understanding of social conflicts that arise from social stratification.Max Weber’s Social StratificationMax Weber expressed a two-fold classification of social stratification, with social class, status groups as distinct concepts. He believed that, the economic order was of great importance in determining the precise position of different communities, but nonetheless, he did not discount the important role of religion, ideas, status, and bureaucracy (Hadden, 1997, p. 126).Weber defined class as the disproportionate distribution of economic rewards, and the status group as the disproportionate distribution of social honor (Krieken, et al, 2001, p.58). Class position is determined by one’s market value. This market value is founded by education, talent, acquired skills and competencies. He had no notion of â€Å"surplus value,† unlike Marx. Social class is simply an aggregate of people with similar work or profess ional opportunities, and their position would depend on the choices they made out of these opportunities.Unlike social class, status groups have similar qualities like groups. They are influenced by how social honor is shared among the members of the group. Lifestyle is shared by those of the same social circle. Belonging to a status group may depend on kinship, education, and at the most extreme, through a caste system, which happens to be related to one’s culture. In a caste system, status is determined not only by law and convention, but also by religious sanction (Gane, 2005, p. 211).Contrary to Marx’ perception, Weber believed that status is more influential than economic condition. He introduced the concept of status groups as an additional social category to define one’s consumption pattern or lifestyle. If Marx focused on one’s position in the production assembly, Weber believed that status groups are actually communities held together by common l ifestyles and social esteem. Status groups share the same professions, views, as well as lifestyles. They do not just enjoy economic rewards, but social honor as well. With their professional achievement, comes social honor.Weber was concerned with individuality and generality (Ritzer, p. 114). For instance, he   recognized the individuality of people – their talents, skills and competencies and, that people have a good chance to further their career and improve their standard of living by increasing their market value through education.Weber’s theory on social mobility (or movement in the class structures) is more promising. Unlike Marx’ idea of social class which imply that animosity between the bourgeois and proletariat will not end until the proletariat eventually overthrow the bourgeois.However, Weber’s concept of social mobility does not only mean an upward movement. The reverse may also happen and that is – moving down the social ladder. M oving up or down the social ladder will depend upon the life choices the person made, as well as opportunities he had. In this case, the middle class are the most predisposed as it is only an intermediary class. Just like how Marx argued, the middle class would be eventually absorbed into both the upper and lower class, as this is not sufficiently different for it to survive (as a social class) in the long run.ConclusionKarl Marx and Max Weber were two important personalities whose theories led to our understanding of social stratification, class and status groups. Marx provided an elaborate and very systematic concept of capitalism and capitalist development, and its effect in society.   While Weber held other factors were also relevant in determining the future of our society   such as religion, culture, ideas, values, meaning, social and personal action.Marx and Weber’s perspectives amazingly still hold true in today’s modern societies. In the â€Å"Communist M anifesto,† Marx and Engels remarked that â€Å"the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles† (Bottomore, 1983,   p. 75). In any historical era, social classes were real and today, pressing economic conditions make social stratification and other structures all the more complex.Despite the fact that many work even harder to achieve more economic reward, many cannot move up the social ladder. â€Å"The class in its turn achieves an independent existence over against the individuals, so that the latter find their conditions of existence predestined, and hence have their position in life and their personal development assigned to them by their class, become subsumed under it† (Giddens and Held, p. 20)To be in the middle of the ladder, and stay there is such a long tedious struggle. Opportunities come, but sometimes, these elude them. In most modern societies in the world, many still live below the poverty line. But those who are bo rn in a wealthy or powerful family, knows just where they stand in the hierarchy system – and that is similar to that of their parents. Looking at how wealth is proportioned in today’s society, and how richer populations possess and continue to increase their wealth, Marx was right. The trend of widening disparity in wealth and social class between the rich and the poor will continue, until we brace ourselves as a social group to make a conscious and consolidated effort of reducing this gap.Weber believed, we can accomplish things which we do not even rationally or scientifically   think we are capable of doing, â€Å"namely the subjective understanding of the action of the component individuals† (Weber, 1968, p. 15). In other words, man has innate capabilities and the power to make significant change in himself and in the society where he belongs.To illustrate his viewpoint and applying it in contemporary society – and it may already sound clichà ©, o ne way of reducing the gap between social classes is through education. Through education, we are able to set the social foundation for the next generations.   It is the long route, but nonetheless, its impact has more lasting value.References:Bottomore, T (ed), 1983, A Dictionary of Marxist Thought, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, p. 75.Krieken, R, et al, 2001, Sociology Themes and Perspectives, 2nd edition, Longman, Melbourne, pp. 54-62.McGregor, C, 1997, Class in Australia, Penguin Books, Victoria, pp. 261.Gane, N, 2005, â€Å"Max Weber as a Social Theorist,† European Journal of Social Theory, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 211-226 (2005)Giddens, A, 1971, Capitalism and Modern Social Theory: An Analysis of the Writings of Marx, Durkheim and Max Weber, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, p. 17.Giddens, A and Held, D, 1982, Classes, Power, and Conflict: Classical and Contemporary Debates, Berkeley, University of California Press, p. 20.Hadden, R, 1997, Sociological Theory: An Introduction to the Classical Tradition, Peterborough, Ontario, Broadview Press, p. 126.Ritzer, G, 1992, Sociological Theory, 3rd edition, New York, McGraw-Hill, p. 114.Sanghara, S, The Concept of Social Inequality, 3 March 2008, http://wps.prenhall.com/ca_ph_macionis_sociology_5/23/6031/1544046.cw/index.htmlWeber, M, 1968, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, New York, Bedminster Press, p. 15.

Challenges and Issues for Nurses While Caring for Patients Assignment

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Photography, Theory and Criticism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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I need to analyze the impact that two trade blocs have on globalization. To analyze the NAFTA (The North American Free Trade Agreement) trade bloc as well as CEFTA (Central European Free Trade Agreement) - Essay Example NAFTA is the short for North American Free Trade Agreement, with partners including United States, Canada and Mexico. Officially agreed upon in 1992, the concept already had been conceived during 1980s when US President Ronald Reagan expressed his desire to form a unified North American market (Baliles, 2010, Para. 1). CEFTA (Central European Free Trade Agreement), also signed in 1992, on the other hand is an association formed between the non-Euro nations, which are mainly concentrated around Central and South-Eastern Europe. Initially comprising fourteen nations, the number of membership gradually receded to five with some of them moving into the Euro zone. The five member nations are Poland, The Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Slovenia) (Pal, n.d., p. 1). Purpose behind the formation of either trade bloc had been promotion of economic growth over the respective regions. Consolidation of nations to form an entity actually facilitates in gaining market and barg aining powers among the international community. These were indeed, the fundamental objectives which played in the minds of the founders while shaping their ideas Consolidation of the NAFTA has resulted to an agricultural boom over the region, which has added to the aggregate agricultural supplies of the world. Moreover, Canada had almost been unnoticed prior to its incorporation, but the world soon realized the nation’s immense investment potentials once that its presence was felt. Member nations of CEFTA too are primarily dependent upon agriculture. Given their enhanced power, the CEFTA nations now export their produce more efficiently and in a manner so as to trigger widespread market demand (Pal, n.d., p. 3). Hence, they too have added to aggregate agricultural products, besides expanding the consumption goods basket.

Studying in U.K V.s studying in U.S Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Human Systems - Respiration - Essay Example It provides the energy needed by cells of the body. The following diagram shows the structure of the human respiratory system. The air then passes onto the interior of the nose called the Nasal Cavity/ Passage. It is lined with a sticky mucous membrane and contains tiny, surface hairs called cilia. The mucus and cilia collect dust, bacteria, and other particles in the air.   The mucus also helps in moistening the air.   Under the mucous membrane there are a large number of capillaries.   The blood within these capillaries helps to warm the air as it passes through the nose. Thus, the nasal cavity serves as a moistener, a filter, and to warm up  the air before it reaches the lungs. Then comes the Pharynx, or the throat, which is followed by the Larynx, which is the voice-box. There are two pairs of membranes that are stretched across the inside of the larynx called the vocal cords. When air is expired, these cords vibrate and by controlling these vibrations, one is able to produce different sounds. Also, epiglottis, a cartilaginous flap prevents food from entering the wind-pipe during swallowing. Both the pharynx and larynx form part of the respiratory tract. The larynx opens up into the Trachea, or the wind pipe. The trachea is a tube approximately 12 cm in length and 2.5 cm wide.   Rings of cartilage within its walls prevent it from collapsing during expiration. It is also covered with a ciliated mucous membrane, which keeps foreign particles and mucus out. The trachea divides into two cartilage-ringed tubes called Bronchi. Also lined with ciliated cells, they form the two main passages for entry of air into the lungs. After entering the lungs, the bronchi divide and spread in a tree-like manner into smaller tubes called Bronchial Tubes. The bronchial tubes divide and then subdivide, becoming thinner and having less and less cartilage in their walls.   Eventually, they become a tiny group of

Change and Development in the English Language22 Essay

Change and Development in the English Language22 - Essay Example However, later this practice was reversed. At the end of Late West Saxon era there were again changes made to the vowels structure. Vowels were usually lengthened in open syllables (13th century), except when trisyllabic laxing would apply. Remaining unstressed vowels merged into //. (IPA transcription text of text 174-Late Saxon english , Last line last word). Similary in the S. Midland era, further changes to the vowels were made. The changes in vowels in this era is known as "Great Vowel Shift. The changes in Great Vowel Shift were that all long vowels raised or diphthongized. /a/, //, /e/ become //, /e/, /i/, respectively. (IPA Transcription text 174-S.Midland English, 1st line second word) ,//, /o/ become /o/, /u/, respectively. (IPA Transcription text 174-S.Midland English,5th line 1st word), and also /i/, /u/ become /i/ and /u/, later /ai/. Apart from changes in vowel, the other main change was Changes in Diphthong. Inherited height-harmonic diphthongs were monophthongized by the loss of the second component, with the length remaining the same. // and // became // and //. (as appeared throughtout in IPA transcription text of text 174-Late Saxon english for e-g in the first line second word second alphabet). In S. Midlands Loss of most remaining diphthongs. Like /ou/ (and former /u/, merged into /ou/ in Early Middle English) became /o/ and /ei/ became /e/ after the shift causing the long mid mergers. (as appeared in IPA transcription Text 174 S Midlands, 4th line 8 word) There were also changes made in Syllables which was first step of transition towards the development of modern English. In Late-West Saxon era, there was Middle English open syllable lengthening: Vowels were usually lengthened in open syllables (13th century), except when trisyllabic laxing would apply (as discussed in the vowels part. In S.Midlands there was a Loss of // in final syllables. How many different dialects of english and prnounciation do we hear nowadays. All these were part of development of English from Late West Saxon Era and S.Midland's era. The major pronounciation that took place in Late West Saxon era was Voiced fricatives became independent phonemes through borrowing and other sound changes and /sw/ before back vowel becomes /s/; /mb/ becomes /m/. (as in Sword and lamb became sord and lam in pronounciation). In the S.Midland era, there were some pronounciation changes as well. This era is marked by the development of some the common accents including some in Northern England, East Anglia, South Wales. Thus, the development of English has a history to tell. It has seen thousand of years of development before it has come in its modern form. It has become a common language because it is a mixture of many languages particulary German and who knows how many other languages had played their part in its development. English, at first was difficult but it was more towards the German. But as the times passed various changes like Changes in Vowels , Diaphtongs, and Syllables made it easy to read, write and speak. Thus, due to this progress, changes and development of English, we see it today as a language of common-culture and people from different parts of the World use it as their means of communication. References : Wikipedia.com

North Korea Essay Essay Example for Free

North Korea Essay Essay Imagine how life would be like if you lived in North Korea. A country so isolated and cut off from the rest of the world. Even after many decades from the war, North Korea and America have never truly been friends. North Korea holds America responsible for dividing their country into North and South. However there are many similarities and differences between America and North Korea. America is very different from North Korea. While we have a Constitution with a Bill of Rights, amendments and basic freedoms, they must follow whatever their leader says with no exceptions. Even though North Korea has a constitution and amendments, the leader still controls all of the country. American citizens are able to vote for their countries leader unlike North Korea, in which where the son of the leader takes his father’s place with ruling the country. So, only one man rules North Korea and all decisions are made by him. Distinct from North Korea, where people don’t have the due process of law, Americans have the right to try to prove that they are not guilty. North Koreans are brought up to love their leader and aren’t allowed to believe in anything else. For them, their leader is the greatest and he is always right. On the other hand, Americans are allowed to believe in whatever religion they choose is right for them. American citizens are all granted equal protection unlike North Korea where only high-ranking officials are provided with those same basic protections. Also, there is no Internet, and cell phones are banned from the country, which block the people from communicating with the rest of the world. Most Americans are provided with basic needs, but in North Korea, a lot of people (child or adult) go blind because they don’t have those basic needs. Lastly, because hospitals and medical care in North Korea is so bad, many people don’t get the treatment that they desperately need. Thankfully, in the U.S., we have good Medicare and trained doctors who are able to cure people every day. American rights also have many similarities to those of North Korean citizen. Both countries have very strong militaries. We similarly strive to become independent countries. The people in America and North Korea have responsibilities, duties, and limited rights. For example like paying taxes and respecting the leader/president. Even though the strictness of these  three elements may change in each country, people in both countries still have to do these things. Although America is a democratic country and North Korea is a theocracy, they both have a strong government system. North Korea is ruled by Kim Jon Sun, our government has three branches and a president. Citizens of America are required to have a passport to travel to other countries, which is a lot like how North Korean’s are needed to have documentation in order to go to different places in their country. There are certainly more differences than similarities between America and North Korea. Living in North Korea would most definitely not be easy. So many things are available to us in the U.S. that wouldn’t be available to us in North Korea. American citizens have fair rights and can believe in whatever they want. We are able to travel to other countries and live according to our rules. Over looking all of the pros and cons of both countries, America would undeniably be an easier and more unrestricted country to live in.

Volunteers and Decision Making Essay Example for Free

Volunteers and Decision Making Essay The purpose of this study is to explore and converse about the role of volunteers within the for-profit and non-profit organizations and examine their influence on organizational decision making. According to Lawrence and Weber, (2011), a volunteer is a person who donates his/her time or efforts for a cause or organization without being paid. Volunteering is about giving your time to a good cause. You dont get paid, but you do get the chance to use your gifts, abilities, talents, cultivate new skills, and experience the pleasure that comes from making a real difference to other peoples lives, as well as your own. Hansen, (2014), argue that it is a pretty common mistake to think of volunteering as just something nice that people can do. Sure, it may make them feel great about helping, but what impact does it really have? Volunteers have a huge impact on the health and well-being of organizations and communities worldwide. According to Ellis, (2003), from the perspective of the recipient of service, a volunteer is someone who gives time, effort and talent to meet a need or further a mission, without going on the payroll. Volunteers donate their time, expertise, talents, abilities, skills, and get-up-and-go energy to assistance the organization because they have faith and confidence in the organization’s operations, mission, ideas, and vision. According to Bruce and Martin, (1992), a non-profit organization is a group organized for purposes other than generating profit and in which no part of the organizations income is distributed to its members, directors, or officers. They can take the form of a corporation, an individual enterprise (for example, individual charitable contributions), unincorporated association, partnership, foundation (distinguished by its endowment by a founder, it takes the form of a trusteeship), or condominium (joint ownership of common areas by owners of adjacent individual units incorporated under state condominium acts). Non-profit organizations must be titled as not-for-profit when formed and may only employ measures acceptable by laws for non-profit businesses. Non-profit organizations include churches, public schools, public charities,  public clinics and hospitals, political organizations, legal aid societies, volunteer services organizations, labor unions, professional associations, resear ch institutes, museums, and some governmental agencies. Any funds earned by a non-profit organization must be reserved by the organization, and used for its own disbursements, disbursements, processes, and programs. Many non-profit organizations also pursue tax exempt status, and may also be exempted from local sales taxes or property taxes. These for-profit and not-for-profit organizations are distinguished from each other in the areas of interest, events, and actions, and whosesoever field of interest is well-defined by their organizational mission and vision statements. The for-profit and non-profit organizations have much in common, but there are significant differences between the two. According to Ingram, (2009), the most fundamental difference between non-profit and for-profit organizations is the reason they exist. For-profit companies are usually established to produce income for directors and their workers, while non-profits are usually established to help a charitable, philanthropic, humanitarian, or conservational and environmental need. In contrast, non-profit organizations distribute all of their profits into programs and services designed at meeting individuals unmet needs, such as food, water, shelter and education, or towards other issues such as endangered species. For-profit companies offer products an d services that are appreciated in the open market, electing to allocate returns among proprietors, workforces, stockholders, owners, investors, and the organization or business itself. Additionally, according Ingram, (2009), sales revenue, in the form of cash and receivables, is the life-blood of for-profit organizations. These companies depend on earned income and credit arrangements with lenders and suppliers to finance their operations. Ingram, (2009), goes on by suggesting non-profits, on the other hand, rely almost entirely on donations and grants from individuals, government entities and organizations. Non-profit and for-profit organizations income basis are regulated, to a large extent, on how the company can use its currency. Since non-profit income comes from donors, non-profits are expected to utilize their funding in a way that maximizes benefits to their targeted recipients. Since for-profits produce  their own revenue and pay their own bills, they have much more ethical latitude as to how they spend. Another different Ingram, (2009), suggests is for-profit organizations are taxed in a number of ways, depending on their form of organization. Small bus inesses, for example, are usually sole proprietorships and partnerships. Ingram, (2009), goes on to state â€Å"the IRS treats the income from proprietorships and partnerships as personal income, and the owners are held personally liable for all business debts†. Nonprofit organizations can register for income-tax exemption under section 501(c) 3 of the tax code, Ingram, (2009). Contributors to non-profit organizations are offered tax incentives for their donations as well. According to the Service Corps of Retired Executives (SCORE), (n.d.), non-profit organizations are treated as legal entities for tax purposes, leaving company forefathers not liable for organizational debts. Lastly, Ingram, (2009), provides a human resource differences between the two. The workforces look quite different between for-profit and nonprofit organizations. For-profit companies are staffed with salaried and hourly employees, while non-profits, on the other hand, usually hire a small workforce, but employ a large corps of volunteers. The processes for employing and dism issal, as well as worker inspiration, motivation, communication and direction techniques vary considerably between salaried employees and volunteers. The role of volunteers in non-profit organizations Volunteers are of huge value to nonprofit organizations. Non-profit organizations frequently depend on the service and commitment of volunteers. The skills and talents of volunteers workers bring nonprofit missions to life. Volunteers perform valuable services for the non-profit organizations. According to HR Specialist, (2002), recent studies estimate that about a hundred million people volunteer each year with an annual value in the range of $150 billion, Not only do volunteers help to save money, but they can provide better service to clients, increase contact with the greater community, make available better expertise, and reduce costs of services. From the early days of America, according to Dreger, (1996). volunteers have pitched in to treat community maladies and needs. Hospitals, orphanages, schools and local fire companies (to name a very few) were the result of a civic rallying around a cause. That civic concern and community  merger continues today in religious charities , Habitat for Humanities, hospitals, libraries, schools and colleges, Hospices, and YMCAs (to name just a very few). While we are sometimes suspicious of volunteers, the truth is that nonprofit organizations would not exist if it were not for the volunteers. Specifically, governance, programming and fund development are three areas of activity in which volunteers assist non-profit organizations, Dreger, (1996). When speaking of governance, volunteers who serve on boards of directors and their committees are the lifeblood of nonprofit organizations, Dreger, (1996). While the Executive Director takes care of day to day matters, volunteer directors take responsibility for policy making, for assuring that the organization has adequate funding, and for meeting any legal challenges that might arise. We often talk about the attributes of a good board member such as a combination of several of the following: wealth, wisdom, work, and the influence factor. With an appropriate mix of these attributes, boards will be in a position of strength to act on their strategic plans. If an organization is preparing fo r a capital campaign, then adding more wealth or wow to the board makes sense. If instituting new programming is in the future, then leaning the board toward wisdom and work would be productive. A board that polishes its composition will be motivated and strengthened. In the area of programming, Dreger, (1996), recommend that trained volunteers can be invaluable in helping to deliver services to clients. They reduce costs through their work and can often provide better services to clients since they serve because of their passion for the organization’s mission. Many volunteers also bring expertise or experience to the organization that is free, such as legal or accounting services, for instance. Other volunteers provide contact with parts of the community that an organization generally doesn’t interact with volunteers will talk about your organization with their friends and colleagues—the good and the bad), and chief among them would be the volunteer who coordinates volunteers! For each volunteer there is the reward of helping others, of serving the cause. When properly directed, volunteers are a treasured asset, real gems in delivering services to those in need, Dreger, (1996). Finally, in the Fund Development area, while fundraising is a chief responsibility of the board, Dreger, (1996), argue there are other ways that volunteers can help to advance the organiz ation. As part of a  development committee, volunteers can serve as prospectors, mining their networks for nuggets you want to pan out. They also can be the go-getters who will put on special events such as auctions, galas, or raffles. Others can seek to get better media coverage. For the best results, it’s important to think through a recruitment strategy to get the right volunteers serving with you, similar to massaging the board’s composition. With a clear idea of what needs to be accomplished and with direction from staff, volunteers can expand your horizons, help you to meet people of influence and affluence that you wouldn’t otherwise, bring skills and expertise that will increase revenues, and become new and dear friends. This is particularly helpful when making plans for a capital campaign. As a leader in an organization, you make the difference between mere success and great success. John Maxwell, author of many books on leadership, says â€Å"Leadership†¦has to do with casting vision and motivating people.† Those people in many cases are the volunteers who have sought you out and you have sought out. The degree to which they add value to your work and mission is dependent on how they are assigned tasks, trained, supervised, evaluated, and loved. Celebrate with your volunteers in all areas of activity! You’ll have lots of fun doing it.. The service volunteers provide to non-profit organizations is of immense value; they take any job, big or small and commit to its completion. They represent the organization before the community and take on the governance responsibility over the organization; they care for the organization as if it was a business of their own. The role of volunteers in for-profit organizations Volunteering at for-profit organizations is generally frowned upon under the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). Under the FLSA, employees may not volunteer services to for-profit private sector employers. On the other hand, in the vast majority of circumstances, individuals can volunteer services to public sector employers. When Congress amended the FLSA in 1985, it made clear that people are allowed to volunteer their services to public agencies and their community with but one exception; public sector employers may not allow their employees to volunteer, without compensation, additional time to do the same work for which they are employed. There is no prohibition on anyone employed in the private sector from volunteering in any capacity or line of  work in the public sector. Tuschman, R., (2012). A shaky economy and poor job market can tempt employers to use free labor; volunteers who are willing (at least initially) to give up compensation to obtain on-the-job skill or to help a d esired social cause or a struggling company. While this exercise may seem like a win-win situation, it is overloaded with legal danger for employers. Under the federal Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) and many state and local wage and hour laws, the use of volunteers is strictly regulated. A court or the U.S. Department of Labor will consider misclassified individuals as employees who must be paid at least the minimum wage, and overtime pay if applicable. Penalties and attorneys’ fees may also be assessed. Under the FLSA, a volunteer will not be considered an employee if the individual volunteers for public service, religious or humanitarian objectives, and without contemplation or receipt of compensation. Typically, volunteers will serve on a part-time basis and will not displace employees or perform work that would otherwise be performed by employees. In addition, to avoid the possibility of coercion, the Department of Labor (DOL) takes the position that paid employees may not volunteer to perform the same type of services for their employer that they are normally employed to perform. These principles are strictly construed against employers. For example, the DOL has opined that there is no employment relationship between a for-profit hospice and individuals who volunteer their services to perform activities of a charitable nature, such as running errands, sitting with patients so that a family may have a break, and going to funerals. However, individuals may not donate their service s to hospices to do activities such as general office or administrative work that are not charitable in nature. Moreover, with respect to those individuals already employed by a hospice, the DOL has stated that they may not volunteer their services to the hospice. In the public sector, an individual who volunteers to perform services for a public agency is not an employee if the individual receives no compensation or is paid expenses, reasonable benefits or a nominal fee. In addition, the FLSA provides that the volunteer services cannot be the same type of services that the individual is employed to perform for the agency. Individuals can qualify as volunteers if they either volunteer to perform services for a different agency or perform different services than they are employed to perform for the same public agency, Tuschman, (2012). According to the Fair Labor Standard Act (FLSA), the difference between an employee and a volunteer in the for-profit sector is a very thin line which can lead an employer to misclassifying employees as volunteers, Bertagna, (2012). According to the same source, employers can use volunteers as long as they adhere to the minimum wage and overtime requirements of the Fair Labor Standard Act. â€Å"If employers misclassify employees as volunteers, the employer’s perceived opportunity to save on money may become a liability† (Bertagna, 2012). Volunteers’ roles in for -profit organizations face several limitations since the volunteer-employer relationship is subject to meeting certain conditions in order to not be considered an employee. In light to fully understand the legal interpretation of the volunteer in a for-profit organization it’s convenient to visit the U. S. Supreme Court (1947) observation about evaluating the relationship in today’s volunteer context: †The determination of the relationship does not depend on isolated factors but rather upon the circumstances of the whole activity.† Volunteers actively participate in activities where they usually have a personal interest in the for-profit sector, like the case of parents volunteering at their children private schools, or personalities giving presentations or lectures at private Universities, not to mention volunteers at private hospitals and their work to alleviate the suffering of the patients. Another category were volunteers participate in for-profit organizations is the case of retires senior managers or directors whom continue to collaborate for their former employers in an emeritus role, sharing their knowledge and experience with the new generations. The influence volunteers exert on organizational decision-making In the early 1980’s, changes in the American society started to call the attention of the scholars. Pearce (1982) described what he anticipated would result in volunteers looking for leadership roles and advance from their affiliations with organizations. In order to responsibly participate in the decision-making process, volunteers need to understand the role and social responsibility the organization has before the public, its customers and the community (Edwards, 2008). Volunteers in leadership positions within both non-profit and for-profit organizations exert a great influence in the decision-making process since their specific role positions them in an authority level where their experience and cognizance serves as a foundation for their capacity. Being as board members, advisory council members, or partner emeritus if firms and corporations, volunteers will always serve with the only goal in mind to do the most good for the organization and/or community they serve. Their willingness to share their expertise and knowledge with the organization, will serve as a way to give back some of what they have received through their lives. Sir Winston Churchill is credited with the quote: â€Å"We make a living by what we get; we make a life by what we give.† He was able to put volunteerism is its correct perspective. Conclusion â€Å"Our Nation has been profoundly shaped by ordinary Americans who have volunteered their time and energy to overcome extraordinary challenges. From the American Revolution and the Seneca Falls Convention to the everyday acts of compassion and purpose that move millions to make change in their communities, our Nation has always been at its best when individuals have come together to realize a common vision. As we continue to pursue progress, service and social innovation will play an essential role in achieving our highest ambitions from a world-class education for every child to an economy built to last. During National Volunteer Week, we pay tribute to all who give of themselves to keep America strong, and we renew the spirit of service that has enriched our country for generations.† (Obama, 2012) Alexis de Tocqueville was profoundly move d by America’s spirit of volunteerism when he toured the United States in 1831, he recognized the way Americans were prompt to assist one another and to sacrifice part of their time to for the welfare of the state (Bertagna, 2012). This is the true spirit of volunteerism, when people devote their time and energy to assist in pursuing and obtaining a greater good. The role volunteers play in modern organizations is of paramount importance, they donate their time, their talent, and their knowledge to support and assist with causes they believe in and where they have placed their hopes and their hearts. Those individuals who perform hours of service without compensation do it for  civic, charitable, or humanitarian reasons deserve to be recognized and respected, deserve to be honored for what they do. References Bertagna, B.R., (2012). For-profit volunteers: The fair labor standards a CT’s limits on volunteering in the private sector. Daily Labor Report. The Bureau of National Affairs. 179 DLR I-.Retrieved from http://www.paulhastings.com/Resources/Upload/Publications/2262.pdf. Edwards, H.C., (2008). Volunteers in leadership roles: Successfully engaging advisory councils. International Journal of Volunteer Administration. 25(2). Retrieved from:http://www.ijova.org/PDF/IJOVA%20Sample%201%20Manuscript%20May%2014.pdf. Ellis, S., (2003). Do volunteers deserve the board’s attention? Nonprofit World. 21 (1) 19-21.January/February 2003.ICNL (2013) FAQ. International Center for Not-For-Profit Law. Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://www.icnl.org/contact/faq/index.html. Lawrence, A. and Weber, J., (2011) Business and society: Stakeholders, ethics, public policy (13th Ed). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Lewis, L.K., Hamel, S. A., and Richardson, B.K., (2001). Communicating change to nonprofit stakeholders: Models and predictors of implementers’ approaches. Management Communication Quarterly. 15 (1). Pp.15-41 Kipp, M.F,. (2009). Rethinking the nonprofit board. Nonprofit World. 27(6), pp. 20-21. Pearce, J.L., (1982). Leading and following volunteers: Implications for a changing society. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. 18 (3), pp. 385-394. Reiss, A.H. (1990) Bottom line: A working board of directors. Management Review. 79(5), pp. 37-38. Retrieved from http://ehis.ebscohost.com.library.gcu.edu:2048/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=1e928abd-3175-4cd5-9afe-c348a044c8a3%40sessionmgr15vid=8hid=5. Hansen, C., (2014). Why is volunteering important? Volunteer Resource Center. (VRC). Retrieved from http://www.idealist.org/info/Volunteer/Why. Bruce, T. R. and Martin, P. W., (1992). Legal Information Institute. Retrieved from http://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/non-profit_organizations. Dreger, D.C., (1996). Importance of Volunteers for Non Profit Organizations Retrieved from http://www.cdsfunds.com/volunteers_what_can_they_do_for_you.html. Ingram, D., (2009). Non-Profit Organization vs. Profit Organization. Demand Media. Retrieved from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/non-profit-organization-vs-profit-organization-4150.html. Service Corps of Retired Executives (SCORE). (n.d). Non-profit vs. For-Profit. Retrieved from http://scoreknox.org/library/versus.htm. The HR Specialist, (2002). Employment Law. Volunteers’ at for-profit companies: Should they be paid? Compensation and Benefits, Human Resources http://www.businessmanagementdaily.com/775/volunteers-at-for-profit-companies-should-they-be-paid. Tuschman, R., (2012). Using Volunteers and Interns: Is It Legal? Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/richardtuschman/2012/08/24/using-volunteers-and-interns-is-it-legal/.

Critical Analysis Of Research Design And Data Collection Management Essay

Critical Analysis Of Research Design And Data Collection Management Essay The purpose of this assignment is to offer a critical analysis of the underpinning assumptions and research design and data collection strategies and the practice of academic research. Two research papers are chosen for the purpose of this analysis. The first paper is a quantitative study and the second paper is a qualitative study. They are as follows:- Shafer, W. E., Fukukawa, K. and Lee, G. M. (2007) Values and the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility: The U.S. versus China, Journal of Business Ethics, 70 (3), pp. 265-284. Tsoi, J. (2007) Stakeholders perceptions and future scenarios to improve corporate social responsibility in Hong Kong and Mainland China, Journal of Business Ethics, pp. 1-14. The main reason for selecting these two papers is that they both report upon the area of corporate social responsibility, which is the focus of my PhD. Within the field of corporate social responsibility (CSR), there has been considerable research discussing the relationship between values and perception with the attitude/behaviour of businesses towards CSR. These values are considered quantifiable and thus have been measured quantitatively using scales developed by authors such as Forsyth (1980), Singhapakdi et al. (1996), and Vitell and Patwardhan (2008). Interviews have been used to bring forward the values that are deemed important by stakeholders, and were explored qualitatively by Fukukawa and Teramoto (2009), Siltaoja (2006), and Là ¤hdesmà ¤ki and Siltaoja (2009). The two papers selected both looked at cross-cultural values and perceptions, however, they utilise different methods of investigation. This difference could provide a good basis for comparison, in terms of philosophical assumptions, research design, and the method of data collection. The analyses will begin for each paper with an introduction of the research aims, followed by the epistemological and ontological position, the research design, followed by analysis of its research methodology, the alternative research design and lastly, conclusions from this discussion will be provided. Review of Quantitative Research paper 2.1 Research Objectives This study by Shafer, Fukukawa and Lee (2007) examined the values and the perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility on managers from China and the U.S. The authors used scales instruments to obtain quantitative data in order to make inferences on whether the managers nationality and personal values have effect on their ethical perception. The American and Chinese managers are assumed to differ in their personal values and subsequently this should be reflected from their responses to the Perceived Role of Ethics and Social Responsibility (PRESOR) scale. The authors provided the relevant background information and built up the reasoning for their hypotheses. The first hypothesis was that managers from China would believe less strongly than American managers in the importance of ethically and socially responsible conduct to achieve organisational success. The second hypothesis was that both American and Chinese managers personal values are believed to have significant impact on the responses to the scale. These hypotheses seem to correlate strongly with the research objectives which are to determine that there is variation in response due to cultural differences. 2.2 Epistemological and Ontological Assumptions It is likely that the authors based their research on moral philosophy which refers in particular to the principles of rules that people use to decide what is right or wrong (Ferrell, Fraedrich and Ferrell, 2005:19). This paper seems to indicate that the principles of rules of managers of different cultures are likely to differ and thus ethical decision-making would vary. The authors provided examples of other empirical research to support this notion. The assumption that personal values can influence ethical decisions shows that the research is likely to infer an ontological assumption of realist, whereby reality is seen to have an existence independent of the activities of the human observer (Blaikie, 2007:13). As the research strives to compare values and perceptions, these elements are thought to be measurable and quantifiable; seemingly leaning towards the empiricism position in which the key idea is that knowledge comes from observing the world (Blaikie, 2007:19). The authors e mployed deductive research whereby the hypotheses formed are tested to determine if the statements can be supported (Sekaran, 2003:31), which is a typical research approach of empiricists. Taking possibly the stance of positivists, these values are assumed measureable, and are thus thought to form the social reality that these values affect the perception of corporate social responsibility amongst the managers from these two countries. 2.3 Research Design The intention is to establish the differences in personal values, by using large quantities of data, which would be representative of the overall population of American and Chinese managers. This suggests that there are two assumptions, that values are measureable and that it is possible to generalise the population from the sample. In order to generalise, a considerably large amount of data is required, thus a survey research instrument was employed. The PRESOR scale developed by Singhapakdi et al. (1995) was used. The reasons that the PRESOR scale was chosen over the cultural dimensions formed by Hofstede (2001) were argued; examples of the latter in other research were shown to be inconsistent and inconclusive in its directional impact, thus making theoretical predictions difficult. The use of PRESOR scale in other research was exemplified and seemed to have established the reliability of its measurement. The PRESOR scale was explained further in the introduction of the paper. Thirteen out of sixteen original items were selected and the authors justified this by stating that only these thirteen items had significant factor loadings in the Singhapakdi, Scott and Franke (1999:25) study. These items were grouped into two categories; the Stockholder and the Stakeholder views. The Stakeholder View reflects the importance of ethics and social responsibility to organisational survival and success, whilst the Stockholder view indicates that organisational success depends on more than just profitability and obligations to the stockholders (Axinn et al., 2004:104) In the methodology section, the Schwartz value instrument and a demographic questionnaire were mentioned as being used together with the PRESOR scale. There was little mention of the reasons the Schwartz scale was used and how it was applied. It was only later in the appendix that the items considered in the Schwartz scale was provided in details. A clearer explanation could have improved the clarity of the paper. The research design employed the use of two research instruments (PRESOR scale and Schwartz value instrument) as means for data collection. The sample of practising managers from the two different countries was given the same survey to complete, thus the responses could be compared on that basis. The results from the analyses were then compared against the hypotheses formed, affirming or not affirming the hypotheses. This process is typical of the deductive approach (Blaikie, 2007:70). 2.4 Data Collection The sample consisted of 311 practising managers, enrolled part time in selective MBA programmes in the U.S. and China. The participation was voluntary and the scales were completed as an in-class exercise. The authors acknowledged potential problems from this sample selection. The first is that, although the MBA programmes in these two countries appear to be comparable, the sample may have confounded the effects of national differences and MBA programme differences. Secondly, the sample was not randomly selected as the authors had asked their students to complete the scales in-class. The authors did not provide further justification for these two problems and thus this is believed to have weakened the external validity of this investigation (Bryman and Bell, 2007:204). Aside from this comment from the authors, there was very little mention of the validity of the measurement which makes it difficult to make further discussion on this. The basis of their selectivity and the criteria in which these programmes were said to be comparable, were also not provided in details. The details of its comparability may have helped clarify and strengthen the validity of the selection criteria, as well as making the paper more understandable. Considering the objectives of the research, in which the authors seem to be looking at making generalisations on the affect of personal values, there is a need to collect large quantities of data. The survey method seems to be appropriate as surveys are easy to distribute to large number of people and costs can be kept to a minimum (Bryman and Bell, 2007:195). This relates to external validity, which is about generalisability of results beyond the focal study (Easterby-Smith et al., 2008:87). In this paper, external validity was not discussed; however, it is likely that the results are meant to be applicable for the context of China and the U.S. only. The authors stated the limitation of which the participants can not be assumed as representative of the broader populations of managers in these two countries, due to the fact that the MBA programmes were selective in nature. The research took consideration of the possibility that the age and experience differences of their sample might affect the results, and thus these factors were examined for significance. The scale was translated to Mandarin Chinese and later back-translated with resolution of discrepancies, to take account of the language difference. These examples seem to reflect on the effort of the authors in ensuring that the results are not significantly affected by other variables. In order to test the dimensionality of the PRESOR scale, a principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation and Kaiser normalisation was applied. This is typical of a quantitative study where factor analysis is usually applied as part of the research design. In terms of research replication, this research had provided considerable amount of information which would possibly allow other researchers to perform similar research. The items from the two views (Stockholder and Stakeholder) of the PRESOR scale were provided in details. In addition, the authors also mentioned the calculation method used, such as the use of mean values and the Univariate Analysis of Covariance models (ANCOVA). The only exception would probably be the PRESOR scale itself, whereby the questions that were asked and the choice answers were not explicitly given, which might mean that future researchers might find it difficult to replicate the research and might even have to approach the authors or Singhapakdi who developed the scale. 2.5 Alternative Method The authors mentioned that more in-depth examination using qualitative design of investigation such as interviews would perhaps be more revealing. It is agreed that qualitative measure would allow insights into the importance of ethics to managers, and the various ethical issues that managers prioritise. The researchers are more likely to obtain a richer data of the decision-making process of managers, at the same time; they would be able to achieve the research objectives. The researchers can make use of semi-structured type interview which will allow better control of what questions need to be asked, and to ensure that the objectives of the interview are achieved as well (Bryman and Bell, 2007:474), if time and costs are constraints. There are also other alternatives methods to obtain qualitative data that would have fit this research, such as the use of focus groups. Focus group interviews allow researchers to observe the behaviour of the American and Chinese managers as they interact with each other. It would be possible to see the differences in reaction to ethical issues much more clearly, when these managers are given, for example, the same ethical dilemma, and they are required to rationalise the problem and come up with solutions. This method might be more useful than questionnaire surveys, particularly in that the values of the American and Chinese managers could be brought out through the way they respond and react to ethical problems, the problem-rationalisation process, and the degree of attention paid on a particular problem. Similar to the interview method, this would be considerably more costly to conduct, and it might even be more costly than doing interviews, however, the researchers would gain no t only in achieving the research objectives but they would also attain a better understanding of the effects of personal values in ethical decision-making. However, if the goal was only to establish that perception of CSR differs between diverse cultures, the research design would have fit the purpose. This is because the data collection strategy used (questionnaire survey), allowed the authors to obtain considerably response for generalisation. A questionnaire survey would also have been more cost-efficient and less time consuming, especially for cross-cultural studies. Review of Qualitative Research paper 3.1 Research Objectives In this second paper, this qualitative study aims to make apparent the perceptions and views of the future scenarios from stakeholders within the garment industry in Hong Kong and Mainland China. The underlying intention was to seek consensus and common ground, on a local and regional level to help companies develop an appropriate CSR strategy, to improve the state of corporate social responsibility and in the long run, to achieve sustainability in the region. The main objective was stated as by engaging with major stakeholders, to identify the local and regional supply chain stakeholders perceptions and expectations (Tsoi, 2007:1). Typical of a qualitative study, generalisation is often not the objective of the study (Bryman and Bell, 2007:410). This is apparent from this study as the author had mentioned that the sample may not be sufficient for generalisation for the entire garment industry, however, it is relevant to garment businesses involved in export-orientated activities (Tsoi, 2007:1). Tsoi (2007) used an inductive approach to identify the perceptions of stakeholders by conducting interviews. 3.2 Epistemological and Ontological Assumptions Although the author did not indicate the philosophical assumptions behind this study, the author implied that by identifying the stakeholders perception, the findings would help in building consensus, strengthening the implementation, and establishing future CSR framework. This suggests that the author has an ontological position of constructionism, which asserts that social phenomena and their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors, implying that there exists social interaction and that there is a constant state of revision of the social phenomena (Bryman and Bell, 2007:23). In this case study, the social reality of what is happening in the garment industry, in terms of its corporate social responsibility, is a social reality that was formed by the stakeholders. It suggests that the social phenomena (condition of CSR) can undergo changes, and that it is dependent on the activities of the social actors. The views of the social actors are thought to be indicative of the important issues in corporate social responsibility, within the garment industry. This form of research is consistent with the research paradigm of the interpretivist position, as the basis of the research is that the study of the phenomena requires an understanding of the social world that social actors have constructed and which they reproduced through their continuing activities (Blaikie, 2007:124). In this instance, the stakeholders are the social actors who will continually interpret and reinterpreting their social world which can be the garment industry. The social phenomenon that the author is investigating is the current state and the future of the corporate social responsibility in Hong Kong and Mainland China. The future conception of CSR in these two places is related to phenomenology, whereby, it concerns with the question of how individuals make sense of the world around them (Bryman and Bell, 2007:18). In this case, it can be viewed as the way stakeholders make sense of the state of corporate responsibility in the region. 3.3 Research Design The author relied on a qualitative method, specifically, the face-to-face semi-structured interview, which indicates the leanings of the author in conducting a naturalistic inquiry in real-world rather than experimental or manipulated settings (Ritchie and Lewis, 2003:4). For qualitative studies, semi-structured and unstructured interviews are commonly used as they provide rich, detailed answers and taps into the interviewees point of view (Bryman and Bell, 2007:474). As the focal source of data was the stakeholders themselves in this study, this seems to infer that the research design is based on the interpretivist view that the social phenomena can only be understood and be investigated from the inside (Blaikie, 2007:125). The author identified major stakeholders possibly with stakeholder theory, stating the assumption that multinationals see stakeholder consultation and management as an important communication tool in identifying and interpreting the needs of salient stakeholders and as such would enable the development of a common language for CSR and subsequently the development of proactive CSR strategies. This correlates with the stakeholder approach of Wheeler et al. (2003:19) who stated that value creation at the highest level requires an ability to build value-based networks where all stakeholders see merit in their association with and support for a business. In this instance, it is likely that the stakeholders were deemed to be important in the future direction of CSR in the region, and this was the reason that stakeholders were chosen as source of data. The author mentioned that these interviews conducted in 2004 and 2005 may no longer be relevant, since there were major developments in 2008. This might have made the interviews slightly outdated however; there should not be many changes to the overall aims of the stakeholders and thus the outcomes of this research would remain valid. However, as an alternative, the author could have applied longitudinal design which represents a distinct form of research design than is typically used to map change in business and management research (Bryman and Bell, 2007:60). The longitudinal design would not only serve the purpose of this study, but it would also allow insights into the factors that cause change to the perception. With this sample, it is possible to use cohort study, whereby the cohort is made up of people who share a certain characteristics (Bryman and Bell, 2007:61), since the stakeholders have a stake in the garment industry. However, longitudinal research may require a lot mor e preparation, could be time-consuming and thus it could be more costly. 3.4 Data Collection With regards to the methodology, the interview questions that were used for this research was not provided. As this was a semi-structured interview, it would have been useful if the author had provided general information on how the questions were formed, and the structure of the interview questions as this would provide an indication of the depth of the interviews, and hence the validity of the research design. For the sample, 25 representatives from academia, the business organisations, the non-government organisations, trade association, and government officials were identified. The response rate was 84%, in which 21 out of a total of 25 representatives of these organisations agreed to be interviewed. It was mentioned that the reason for such a high response rate, was that the author had contacted the interviewees on a one-to-one basis. Furthermore, the interviewees were also guaranteed anonymity. The sample, thus, appears to be extensive and is representative of the various stakeholders that are vital in the garment industry. 3.5 Alternative Method The intention was that the findings would help in building consensus, strengthening the implementation and establishing the future CSR framework (Tsoi, 2007:1). The author might have meant that having collected all the different views from these stakeholders, the author would be able to determine the consensus of how CSR should be developed and how CSR should be like in the future. However, it is doubtful that a consensus could have been obtained using this method of analysis. The interviewees, although were representative of the garment industry, each one a vital stakeholder, there was no real interaction between these stakeholders, and thus, the consensus that is meant is only based on the researchers understanding from the interviewees responses. Stakeholders are thought to be able to reach a better compromise through discourse, with different sides arguing for the validity of their point as well as ensuring that the interests of the group or association that they represent are ta ken account of (Bryman and Bell, 2007:511). While it is understandable, that there is a strong possibility that it could be costly to get all the interviewees to sit together through a discourse, nevertheless there are alternatives which might be more useful for the purpose of this investigation, given that the objective is to reach a consensus amongst the stakeholders. With this reasoning, the research design could improve by firstly conveying the findings of the interviews to all of the stakeholders interviewed, and follow up with another interview to see if there were changes to their views. Alternatively, the author could use the method of focus group interviews. With this method, Merton et al. (1956) (in Bryman and Bell, 2007:511) stated that the accent is upon interaction within the group and the joint construction of meaning. Focus group interviews could provide a platform for the interviewees to interact and to establish a joint construction of what it means to strengthen CSR and also determine what future scenarios should and could be like. With regards to selecting a suitable size for the focus group, it is recommended by Bryman and Bell (2007:517) that the typical group size should be six to ten members, whilst Sekaran (2003:220) recommends a size of eight to twelve members. The reason that the focus group interview method was recommended was that the interviewees would be encouraged to express their opinions argumentatively, which would then allow the researcher to gauge the degree of importance of certain issues and how much flexibility the interviewees might h ave to reach a compromise with others. There are of course possible pitfalls using the focus group method, in that some interviewees might be dominant over others, and thus the opinions of those less dominant might not be heard, but these effects can be reduced to a minimum level by having a good moderator (in Bryman and Bell, 2007:511). The one-to-one interview method could still be more advantageous compared with the focus group interview, as the time and monetary costs of conducting a one-to-one interview would probably be considerably less and thus be more manageable especially if there was only one researcher, as was with this case study. In this case study, it seemed that a quantitative design would actually be difficult to apply, and it would also be inappropriate for an investigation on the perception of CSR as a business concern. Taking the example of using a questionnaire survey with closed-ended questions, it is very likely that the respondents would answer that they are very concerned about CSR, as that might be perceived as the correct response, thus creating social desirability bias to the results. Furthermore, with a questionnaire survey, the researcher would not be able to pin-point all the various future scenarios for CSR in Hong Kong and Mainland China, even if it was possible, the list of future scenarios might be too long to be practically manageable. Another issue would be that in making assumptions of the future scenarios that are deemed significant to the stakeholders, it would be problematic as the researcher might risk missing out relevant information. Therefore, it would be difficult, from these r easons, that a quantitative design would not be suitable for such a case study. Conclusions In summary, the two papers reflect significant differences in their research approach. This was seen through the objectives of the research, the underlying assumptions of the research philosophy and the conceptualisation of research design and the data collection. There is certainly much to learn from these two research papers, both had given valuable information on the differences between quantitative and qualitative methods, as well as offer guidance on the selection of research method and how to go about utilising these methods. The research designs, as shown in these papers, are dependent of the research objectives and the designs are also influenced by the epistemological and ontological assumptions made. Even though the philosophical positions of the researchers were not made explicit, however, the likely positions can be assumed. These papers have also shown that the advantages and the disadvantages of the different methods of investigation, and they need to be considered to e nsure that the best method is chosen for the purpose of the research. In these two papers, the method of investigation is distinct, one was a qualitative study and the other was a quantitative study, however, this does not necessarily mean that a mixed method of investigation can not be used. In fact, (Bryman and Bell, 2007:646) suggested that triangulation can be applied, in which the results of an investigation employing a method associated with one research strategy are cross-checked against the results of using a method associated with the other research strategy. Bibliography Axinn, C. N., Blair, M. E., Heorhiadi, A. and Thach, S. V. (2004) Comparing ethical ideologies across cultures, Journal of Business Ethics, 54 (2), pp. 103-119. Blaikie, N. (2007) Approaches to social enquiry: advancing knowledge. Polity Pr. Bryman, A. and Bell, E. (2007) Business research methods. Oxford University Press, USA. Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R., Jackson, P. and Easterby-Smith, M. (2008) Management research. 3rd edn. London: Sage. 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